Endocrine disruptors (BPA, phthalates)

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that interfere with hormone synthesis, transport, receptor binding or metabolism; bisphenol A (BPA) and its structural analogues (BPS, BPF) act primarily as agonists or antagonists at oestrogen receptors (ERα, ERβ) and also interact with androgen and thyroid hormone pathways, while phthalates — plasticisers used widely in food packaging, medical devices and personal-care products — reduce androgen biosynthesis by inhibiting steroidogenic enzymes. Epidemiological associations include earlier puberty onset, reduced sperm quality, polycystic ovary syndrome, type 2 diabetes and obesity, though establishing causality in observational data is complicated by ubiquitous co-exposure and the non-monotonic dose-response curves characteristic of many EDCs. The EU banned BPA from polycarbonate baby bottles in 2011 and adopted a comprehensive ban on intentional BPA use in food-contact materials in December 2024 (Regulation (EU) 2024/3190), with phased transition periods, and applies a group tolerable daily intake for phthalates, but regulatory thresholds remain contested; cumulative mixture risk assessment is not yet standard practice in most jurisdictions.